Incidence:
• Third most frequently reported nosocomial infection
• Culprits: S. aureus (20%), E. coli (10%), Enterococcus (10%), S. epidermidis,
Pseudomonas, Streptococcus, other anaerobes
Degree of Intraoperative Contamination:
1. Clean: no gross contamination from endogenous or exogenous sources, e.g. skin
or vascular cases
• Infection rate about 1.5-5%
2. Clean-contaminated: lightly contaminated, e.g. gastric or biliary cases, GU, gyn,
respiratory tract surgery
• Infection rate about 3-7% if prophylactic antibiotics used
3. Contaminated: heavily contaminated, e.g. penetrating trauma, bowel spillage,
operations on unprepared colon
• Infection rate about 10-15%
4. Infected: e.g. gross pus, gangrene, bowel perforation encountered
• Infection rate 15-40%
Patient characteristics:
1. Diabetes mellitus, uremia, extremes of age, immunosuppression
2. Decreased blood flow to wound: hypoxemia, nicotine
3. Malnutrition: protein depletion
4. Injury: irradiated or devitalized tissue
5. Foreign body
Prevention: CDC recommendations
1. Careful, clean, gentle surgery, minimizing tissue trauma, wound hematomas,
number of ligatures, and drying or pressure from retractors
2. Reduction of contamination
3. Support of patient’s defenses, including prophylactic antibiotics: indicated when
wound contamination during operation likely to be high (contaminated).
Antibiotics not shown to reduce incidence of wound infections after clean
operations.
Treatment:
1. Open the wound and allow it to drain.
2. Perform digital exam to assess for fascial dehiscence.
3. Antibiotics indicated if patient immunocompromised, if prosthetics involved, if
patient has signs of systemic toxicity or if surrounding area of soft tissue
erythema and edema
4. Cultures should be performed in case existing infection becomes invasive.
Curveballs:
1. Ascites
• Patients with ascites at risk of fluid leak through wound, with higher incidence
of wound infections and risk of peritonitis through retrograde contamination.
Prevention involves closing at least one layer with a continuous suture and
preventing accumulation of ascites postoperatively
2. Burns
• S. aureus: Slow onset over 2-5 days; marked increase in temperature and
leukocytosis; mortality approx 5%
• P. aeruginosa: Rapid onset over 12-36 hours; high or low temp and WBC;
often severe hypotension; mortality approx 20-30%
3. Diffuse necrotizing infections
• Clinical findings: High fever POD #1 - wound needs immediate inspection for
crepitance or air bubbles on xray, cellulitis or skin discoloration
• Nonclostridial: More common in diabetics; causal organisms are anaerobic
Streptococci, Staphylococci, and Bacteroides; clinical findings erythema,
edema beyond erythema, crepitance, sepsis
• Clostridial myonecrosis: bronze-brown seropurulent weeping exudates and
mousy odor characteristic of Clostridia perfringens (80% of cases of tissue
necrosis; creates exotoxins which destroy microcirculation allowing rapid
advancement of infection)
• Treatment: emergent aggressive wide debridement and broad-spectrum
antibiotics (IV high-dose Penicillin for Clostridia)
References:
• Malone, D. et al. Surgical Site Infections: Reanalysis of Risk Factors. J of Surgical
Research 2002; 103: 89-95.
• Taylor, E. et al. Surgical site infection after groin hernia repair. British J of Surgery
2004; 91: 105-111.
• Culver DH et al. Surgical wound infection rates be wound class, operative procedure,
and patient risk index. National Nosocomial Infection Surveillance System. Am J
Med 1991; 91: 152S.
• Way, Larry. Current Surgical Diagnosis and Treatment, 11th Ed, 2003
• Mont Reid Surgical Handbook, 4th Ed, 1997
• CDC/USDHHS guideline for prevention of surgical site infection, 1999
• Third most frequently reported nosocomial infection
• Culprits: S. aureus (20%), E. coli (10%), Enterococcus (10%), S. epidermidis,
Pseudomonas, Streptococcus, other anaerobes
Degree of Intraoperative Contamination:
1. Clean: no gross contamination from endogenous or exogenous sources, e.g. skin
or vascular cases
• Infection rate about 1.5-5%
2. Clean-contaminated: lightly contaminated, e.g. gastric or biliary cases, GU, gyn,
respiratory tract surgery
• Infection rate about 3-7% if prophylactic antibiotics used
3. Contaminated: heavily contaminated, e.g. penetrating trauma, bowel spillage,
operations on unprepared colon
• Infection rate about 10-15%
4. Infected: e.g. gross pus, gangrene, bowel perforation encountered
• Infection rate 15-40%
Patient characteristics:
1. Diabetes mellitus, uremia, extremes of age, immunosuppression
2. Decreased blood flow to wound: hypoxemia, nicotine
3. Malnutrition: protein depletion
4. Injury: irradiated or devitalized tissue
5. Foreign body
Prevention: CDC recommendations
1. Careful, clean, gentle surgery, minimizing tissue trauma, wound hematomas,
number of ligatures, and drying or pressure from retractors
2. Reduction of contamination
3. Support of patient’s defenses, including prophylactic antibiotics: indicated when
wound contamination during operation likely to be high (contaminated).
Antibiotics not shown to reduce incidence of wound infections after clean
operations.
Treatment:
1. Open the wound and allow it to drain.
2. Perform digital exam to assess for fascial dehiscence.
3. Antibiotics indicated if patient immunocompromised, if prosthetics involved, if
patient has signs of systemic toxicity or if surrounding area of soft tissue
erythema and edema
4. Cultures should be performed in case existing infection becomes invasive.
Curveballs:
1. Ascites
• Patients with ascites at risk of fluid leak through wound, with higher incidence
of wound infections and risk of peritonitis through retrograde contamination.
Prevention involves closing at least one layer with a continuous suture and
preventing accumulation of ascites postoperatively
2. Burns
• S. aureus: Slow onset over 2-5 days; marked increase in temperature and
leukocytosis; mortality approx 5%
• P. aeruginosa: Rapid onset over 12-36 hours; high or low temp and WBC;
often severe hypotension; mortality approx 20-30%
3. Diffuse necrotizing infections
• Clinical findings: High fever POD #1 - wound needs immediate inspection for
crepitance or air bubbles on xray, cellulitis or skin discoloration
• Nonclostridial: More common in diabetics; causal organisms are anaerobic
Streptococci, Staphylococci, and Bacteroides; clinical findings erythema,
edema beyond erythema, crepitance, sepsis
• Clostridial myonecrosis: bronze-brown seropurulent weeping exudates and
mousy odor characteristic of Clostridia perfringens (80% of cases of tissue
necrosis; creates exotoxins which destroy microcirculation allowing rapid
advancement of infection)
• Treatment: emergent aggressive wide debridement and broad-spectrum
antibiotics (IV high-dose Penicillin for Clostridia)
References:
• Malone, D. et al. Surgical Site Infections: Reanalysis of Risk Factors. J of Surgical
Research 2002; 103: 89-95.
• Taylor, E. et al. Surgical site infection after groin hernia repair. British J of Surgery
2004; 91: 105-111.
• Culver DH et al. Surgical wound infection rates be wound class, operative procedure,
and patient risk index. National Nosocomial Infection Surveillance System. Am J
Med 1991; 91: 152S.
• Way, Larry. Current Surgical Diagnosis and Treatment, 11th Ed, 2003
• Mont Reid Surgical Handbook, 4th Ed, 1997
• CDC/USDHHS guideline for prevention of surgical site infection, 1999
Philippa Newell, M.D.
April 1, 2004
April 1, 2004
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